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Nuls

Nuls is present on the following networks: binance_smart_chain, ethereum, huobi, nuls, okc_token. Binance Smart Chain (BSC) uses a hybrid consensus mechanism called Proof of Staked Authority (PoSA), which combines elements of Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) and Proof of Authority (PoA). This method ensures fast block times and low fees while maintaining a level of decentralization and security. Core Components 1. Validators (so-called “Cabinet Members”): Validators on BSC are responsible for producing new blocks, validating transactions, and maintaining the network’s security. To become a validator, an entity must stake a significant amount of BNB (Binance Coin). Validators are selected through staking and voting by token holders. There are 21 active validators at any given time, rotating to ensure decentralization and security. 2. Delegators: Token holders who do not wish to run validator nodes can delegate their BNB tokens to validators. This delegation helps validators increase their stake and improves their chances of being selected to produce blocks. Delegators earn a share of the rewards that validators receive, incentivizing broad participation in network security. 3. Candidates: Candidates are nodes that have staked the required amount of BNB and are in the pool waiting to become validators. They are essentially potential validators who are not currently active but can be elected to the validator set through community voting. Candidates play a crucial role in ensuring there is always a sufficient pool of nodes ready to take on validation tasks, thus maintaining network resilience and decentralization. Consensus Process 4. Validator Selection: Validators are chosen based on the amount of BNB staked and votes received from delegators. The more BNB staked and votes received, the higher the chance of being selected to validate transactions and produce new blocks. The selection process involves both the current validators and the pool of candidates, ensuring a dynamic and secure rotation of nodes. 5. Block Production: The selected validators take turns producing blocks in a PoA-like manner, ensuring that blocks are generated quickly and efficiently. Validators validate transactions, add them to new blocks, and broadcast these blocks to the network. 6. Transaction Finality: BSC achieves fast block times of around 3 seconds and quick transaction finality. This is achieved through the efficient PoSA mechanism that allows validators to rapidly reach consensus. Security and Economic Incentives 7. Staking: Validators are required to stake a substantial amount of BNB, which acts as collateral to ensure their honest behavior. This staked amount can be slashed if validators act maliciously. Staking incentivizes validators to act in the network's best interest to avoid losing their staked BNB. 8. Delegation and Rewards: Delegators earn rewards proportional to their stake in validators. This incentivizes them to choose reliable validators and participate in the network’s security. Validators and delegators share transaction fees as rewards, which provides continuous economic incentives to maintain network security and performance. 9. Transaction Fees: BSC employs low transaction fees, paid in BNB, making it cost-effective for users. These fees are collected by validators as part of their rewards, further incentivizing them to validate transactions accurately and efficiently. The Ethereum network uses a Proof-of-Stake Consensus Mechanism to validate new transactions on the blockchain. Core Components 1. Validators: Validators are responsible for proposing and validating new blocks. To become a validator, a user must deposit (stake) 32 ETH into a smart contract. This stake acts as collateral and can be slashed if the validator behaves dishonestly. 2. Beacon Chain: The Beacon Chain is the backbone of Ethereum 2.0. It coordinates the network of validators and manages the consensus protocol. It is responsible for creating new blocks, organizing validators into committees, and implementing the finality of blocks. Consensus Process 1. Block Proposal: Validators are chosen randomly to propose new blocks. This selection is based on a weighted random function (WRF), where the weight is determined by the amount of ETH staked. 2. Attestation: Validators not proposing a block participate in attestation. They attest to the validity of the proposed block by voting for it. Attestations are then aggregated to form a single proof of the block’s validity. 3. Committees: Validators are organized into committees to streamline the validation process. Each committee is responsible for validating blocks within a specific shard or the Beacon Chain itself. This ensures decentralization and security, as a smaller group of validators can quickly reach consensus. 4. Finality: Ethereum 2.0 uses a mechanism called Casper FFG (Friendly Finality Gadget) to achieve finality. Finality means that a block and its transactions are considered irreversible and confirmed. Validators vote on the finality of blocks, and once a supermajority is reached, the block is finalized. 5. Incentives and Penalties: Validators earn rewards for participating in the network, including proposing blocks and attesting to their validity. Conversely, validators can be penalized (slashed) for malicious behavior, such as double-signing or being offline for extended periods. This ensures honest participation and network security. The Huobi Eco Chain (HECO) blockchain employs a Hybrid-Proof-of-Stake (HPoS) consensus mechanism, combining elements of Proof-of-Stake (PoS) to enhance transaction efficiency and scalability. Key Features of HECO's Consensus Mechanism: 1. Validator Selection: HECO supports up to 21 validators, selected based on their stake in the network. 2. Transaction Processing: Validators are responsible for processing transactions and adding blocks to the blockchain. 3. Transaction Finality: The consensus mechanism ensures quick finality, allowing for rapid confirmation of transactions. 4. Energy Efficiency: By utilizing PoS elements, HECO reduces energy consumption compared to traditional Proof-of-Work systems. NULS employs a Proof of Credit (PoC) consensus mechanism, designed to balance scalability, decentralization, and security. PoC incentivizes active participation and provides modular flexibility for diverse blockchain applications. Core Components: Credit-Based Staking: Validators, called consensus nodes, are selected based on their staked NULS tokens and network credit score. The credit score is determined by consistent uptime and reliable node operation. Consensus Nodes: Nodes validate transactions and produce blocks, earning rewards proportional to their staked amount and credit score. A flexible number of nodes participate in consensus, ensuring adaptability to network size and demand. Customizable Consensus: PoC integrates seamlessly with NULS’ modular architecture, enabling developers to customize the consensus protocol for sidechains and specific use cases. Instant Finality: Transactions are finalized immediately after block validation, enhancing speed and reducing the risk of forks. OKC, also known as OKX Chain, is an EVM-compatible Layer-1 blockchain built on the Cosmos SDK. It employs a Delegated Proof of Stake (DPoS) consensus mechanism, enhanced by Tendermint's Byzantine Fault Tolerant (BFT) protocol. In this system, OKT token holders delegate their tokens to validators, who are responsible for validating transactions and producing new blocks. Additionally, OKC supports interoperability through the Inter-Blockchain Communication (IBC) protocol, facilitating seamless value transfer between blockchains within the Cosmos ecosystem.

Nuls is present on the following networks: binance_smart_chain, ethereum, huobi, nuls, okc_token. Binance Smart Chain (BSC) uses the Proof of Staked Authority (PoSA) consensus mechanism to ensure network security and incentivize participation from validators and delegators. Incentive Mechanisms 1. Validators: Staking Rewards: Validators must stake a significant amount of BNB to participate in the consensus process. They earn rewards in the form of transaction fees and block rewards. Selection Process: Validators are selected based on the amount of BNB staked and the votes received from delegators. The more BNB staked and votes received, the higher the chances of being selected to validate transactions and produce new blocks. 2. Delegators: Delegated Staking: Token holders can delegate their BNB to validators. This delegation increases the validator's total stake and improves their chances of being selected to produce blocks. Shared Rewards: Delegators earn a portion of the rewards that validators receive. This incentivizes token holders to participate in the network’s security and decentralization by choosing reliable validators. 3. Candidates: Pool of Potential Validators: Candidates are nodes that have staked the required amount of BNB and are waiting to become active validators. They ensure that there is always a sufficient pool of nodes ready to take on validation tasks, maintaining network resilience. 4. Economic Security: Slashing: Validators can be penalized for malicious behavior or failure to perform their duties. Penalties include slashing a portion of their staked tokens, ensuring that validators act in the best interest of the network. Opportunity Cost: Staking requires validators and delegators to lock up their BNB tokens, providing an economic incentive to act honestly to avoid losing their staked assets. Fees on the Binance Smart Chain 5. Transaction Fees: Low Fees: BSC is known for its low transaction fees compared to other blockchain networks. These fees are paid in BNB and are essential for maintaining network operations and compensating validators. Dynamic Fee Structure: Transaction fees can vary based on network congestion and the complexity of the transactions. However, BSC ensures that fees remain significantly lower than those on the Ethereum mainnet. 6. Block Rewards: Incentivizing Validators: Validators earn block rewards in addition to transaction fees. These rewards are distributed to validators for their role in maintaining the network and processing transactions. 7. Cross-Chain Fees: Interoperability Costs: BSC supports cross-chain compatibility, allowing assets to be transferred between Binance Chain and Binance Smart Chain. These cross-chain operations incur minimal fees, facilitating seamless asset transfers and improving user experience. 8. Smart Contract Fees: Deployment and Execution Costs: Deploying and interacting with smart contracts on BSC involves paying fees based on the computational resources required. These fees are also paid in BNB and are designed to be cost-effective, encouraging developers to build on the BSC platform. Ethereum, particularly after transitioning to Ethereum 2.0 (Eth2), employs a Proof-of-Stake (PoS) consensus mechanism to secure its network. The incentives for validators and the fee structures play crucial roles in maintaining the security and efficiency of the blockchain. Incentive Mechanisms 1. Staking Rewards: Validator Rewards: Validators are essential to the PoS mechanism. They are responsible for proposing and validating new blocks. To participate, they must stake a minimum of 32 ETH. In return, they earn rewards for their contributions, which are paid out in ETH. These rewards are a combination of newly minted ETH and transaction fees from the blocks they validate. Reward Rate: The reward rate for validators is dynamic and depends on the total amount of ETH staked in the network. The more ETH staked, the lower the individual reward rate, and vice versa. This is designed to balance the network's security and the incentive to participate. 2. Transaction Fees: Base Fee: After the implementation of Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP) 1559, the transaction fee model changed to include a base fee that is burned (i.e., removed from circulation). This base fee adjusts dynamically based on network demand, aiming to stabilize transaction fees and reduce volatility. Priority Fee (Tip): Users can also include a priority fee (tip) to incentivize validators to include their transactions more quickly. This fee goes directly to the validators, providing them with an additional incentive to process transactions efficiently. 3. Penalties for Malicious Behavior: Slashing: Validators face penalties (slashing) if they engage in malicious behavior, such as double-signing or validating incorrect information. Slashing results in the loss of a portion of their staked ETH, discouraging bad actors and ensuring that validators act in the network's best interest. Inactivity Penalties: Validators also face penalties for prolonged inactivity. This ensures that validators remain active and engaged in maintaining the network's security and operation. Fees Applicable on the Ethereum Blockchain 1. Gas Fees: Calculation: Gas fees are calculated based on the computational complexity of transactions and smart contract executions. Each operation on the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) has an associated gas cost. Dynamic Adjustment: The base fee introduced by EIP-1559 dynamically adjusts according to network congestion. When demand for block space is high, the base fee increases, and when demand is low, it decreases. 2. Smart Contract Fees: Deployment and Interaction: Deploying a smart contract on Ethereum involves paying gas fees proportional to the contract's complexity and size. Interacting with deployed smart contracts (e.g., executing functions, transferring tokens) also incurs gas fees. Optimizations: Developers are incentivized to optimize their smart contracts to minimize gas usage, making transactions more cost-effective for users. 3. Asset Transfer Fees: Token Transfers: Transferring ERC-20 or other token standards involves gas fees. These fees vary based on the token's contract implementation and the current network demand. The Huobi Eco Chain (HECO) blockchain employs a Hybrid-Proof-of-Stake (HPoS) consensus mechanism, combining elements of Proof-of-Stake (PoS) to enhance transaction efficiency and scalability. Incentive Mechanism: 1. Validator Rewards: Validators are selected based on their stake in the network. They process transactions and add blocks to the blockchain. Validators receive rewards in the form of transaction fees for their role in maintaining the blockchain's integrity. 2. Staking Participation: Users can stake Huobi Token (HT) to become validators or delegate their tokens to existing validators. Staking helps secure the network and, in return, participants receive a portion of the transaction fees as rewards. Applicable Fees: 1. Transaction Fees (Gas Fees): Users pay gas fees in HT tokens to execute transactions and interact with smart contracts on the HECO network. These fees compensate validators for processing and validating transactions. 2. Smart Contract Execution Fees: Deploying and interacting with smart contracts incur additional fees, which are also paid in HT tokens. These fees cover the computational resources required to execute contract code. NULS employs a balanced reward system to incentivize network participation and ensure sustainability, while maintaining a cost-effective fee structure for users. Incentive Mechanism: Staking Rewards: Validators (consensus nodes) earn NULS tokens for validating transactions and producing blocks. Rewards are proportional to their staked tokens and credit score. Token holders can delegate their NULS to validators, earning a share of the staking rewards. Credit Score System: Validators with higher credit scores receive better rewards, incentivizing consistent performance and reliable participation. Node Operation Incentives: Node operators are rewarded for providing network stability, promoting active and trustworthy participation in consensus. Applicable Fees: Transaction Fees: Users pay fees in NULS for transferring assets and executing smart contracts. These fees are distributed to validators and delegators as rewards. Customizable Fee Structure: Sidechains built on the NULS platform can define their own fee models, making the ecosystem adaptable to diverse use cases. Cost Efficiency: NULS prioritizes low transaction fees to encourage adoption and support scalability. Within the OKC ecosystem, users pay transaction fees, typically less than $0.01, for executing operations on the network. These fees are distributed to validators as rewards for their services in maintaining network security and processing transactions.

2024-04-20

2025-04-20

19735.18810 (kWh/a)

The energy consumption of this asset is aggregated across multiple components: For the calculation of energy consumptions, the so called “bottom-up” approach is being used. The nodes are considered to be the central factor for the energy consumption of the network. These assumptions are made on the basis of empirical findings through the use of public information sites, open-source crawlers and crawlers developed in-house. The main determinants for estimating the hardware used within the network are the requirements for operating the client software. The energy consumption of the hardware devices was measured in certified test laboratories. When calculating the energy consumption, we used - if available - the Functionally Fungible Group Digital Token Identifier (FFG DTI) to determine all implementations of the asset of question in scope and we update the mappings regulary, based on data of the Digital Token Identifier Foundation. To determine the energy consumption of a token, the energy consumption of the network(s) binance_smart_chain, ethereum, huobi, okc_token is calculated first. Based on the crypto asset's gas consumption per network, the share of the total consumption of the respective network that is assigned to this asset is defined. When calculating the energy consumption, we used - if available - the Functionally Fungible Group Digital Token Identifier (FFG DTI) to determine all implementations of the asset of question in scope and we update the mappings regulary, based on data of the Digital Token Identifier Foundation.